Advertisement
If you have a new account but are having problems posting or verifying your account, please email us on hello@boards.ie for help. Thanks :)
Hello all! Please ensure that you are posting a new thread or question in the appropriate forum. The Feedback forum is overwhelmed with questions that are having to be moved elsewhere. If you need help to verify your account contact hello@boards.ie
Please note that it is not permitted to have referral links posted in your signature. Keep these links contained in the appropriate forum. Thank you.

https://www.boards.ie/discussion/2055940817/signature-rules
Hi there,
There is an issue with role permissions that is being worked on at the moment.
If you are having trouble with access or permissions on regional forums please post here to get access: https://www.boards.ie/discussion/2058365403/you-do-not-have-permission-for-that#latest

Public charging prices not dropping when wholesale prices drop

13»

Comments

  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 13,375 ✭✭✭✭prawnsambo


    True, but we can't go back in time to when Norway started and costs were much lower.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 9,867 ✭✭✭Red Silurian


    I would be of the opinion that if you can't charge at home, then don't buy an EV until that problem has been solved.

    I would be of the opinion that this is a problem that needs to be solved. Something like a subscription to allow you to refill your car at the same price as you do at home I think would be best. A one app - one card approach would be good as well



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Agree with a lot of it. We need trees, absolutely. But trees don't help with diesel particulates really. You're dead right about the big cars, but it's a global trend in developed countries. Can't stop it but can be taxed imho.

    Anyway the topic is prices of public charging. The prices will stay high imho but the government should tax ICE and fuels heavily. But they're afraid.

    We don't need the carrot, incentives, really, it's nice to have them but we absolutely need the stick. There's no way around it.

    The easiest way is to reflect environmental and health damage to price of products - fuels and cars. Given that electricity won't hey cheaper, fossil fuel dino juice must get more expensive. The earlier the gov starts doing it the better, else there's gonna be a shock therapy if they dither.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Yep, it's fine to kick start it, as a temporary measure. I still think the government could have done it differently, as it was done in European countries I.e. let experts do it and just pay for it. But we're where we are and from now on it should be tendered out to the charging operators and the charging market deregulate to stimulate growth. It must be super easy to get a grid connection - less paperwork for operators, also the government should reduce the cost of entering the market in whatever way possible.



  • Registered Users Posts: 2,152 ✭✭✭innrain


    At the EU level there was money since 2021 for different project under the Alternative Fuel whatever the name is. Last call over 400M. Guess how many in IE?

    https://cinea.ec.europa.eu/news-events/news/transport-infrastructure-over-eur-424-million-eu-funding-boost-zero-emission-mobility-2024-04-10_en

    None. I wonder why?

    Tesla is getting 10M for infrastructure in 11 countries (BG, CZ, DK, EE, EL, HU, LV, LT, PT, SK, ES). Nothing for out shores.

    The most expensive project it is a hydrogen one in Poland at 62M funding, total cost 124M.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    The Norwegian sovereign fund is a completely different topic. We're talking about DC charging network.

    The charging network is almost entirely private in Norway and other countries in Europe. I don't think the state should run petrol stations. And equally I don't think it should run fast charging network. It's always going to be suboptimal, result in poor outcomes, poor service etc. As I will demonstrate.

    So how has the semi-public model worked so far Ireland? Not much.

    Netherlands - 3600+ CCS DC - entirely private network, very competitive landscape, but OK it's 3 times larger population - divide by three :)

    Czechia - 1400+ CCS DC - rapid growth in the last few years, 85% is private with dozens of providers, the 15% is a semi-state energy company and an equivalent of ESB. Yeah a tad bigger country, although a similar area as Ireland, and all that but it has fewer EVs than Ireland…

    Denmark - 2300+ CCS DC, rapid growth, 90% private operators, country of the same size and population as Ireland…

    Ireland - 220 CCS DC - 80% public/semi-state, complete outlier in Europe…

    Currently, Ireland has as many DC chargers as tiny Slovenia. And before anyone says that - yes, these examples are all transit countries but that doesn't explain ALL the numbers, maybe a fraction of them. It's still multiples of chargers even if you factor in difference in motorway length, population, transit traffic etc.

    I'm not sure how much evidence is needed to give a wider context to people so that they reevaluate their ideas. The current model is not working and the private sector needs to take over. The government should focus on stimulating the charging market by various means (incentives and/or mandates) instead of trying to build suboptinal network themselves at a very snail pace.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Not, it's not, as you can see the examples I gave. Other countries are solving the catch22 problem. Even if we ignore Norway.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    100%. Absolute failure of the Irish government to draw money from it. A lot of the rapid growth I demonstrated in the charts was/is funded from that EU project.

    I believe this project for RO, LT, BG is also partly funded from the same EU fund as well as financed by the EIB.
    2500 chargers for Lithuania and 8000 for Romania….massive numbers.
    https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2024-025-investeu-eib-signs-eur40-million-loan-with-eldrive-to-expand-electric-vehicle-charging-networks-in-bulgaria-lithuania-and-romania



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 3,827 ✭✭✭...Ghost...


    Just got an email from Tesla. I don't use SCs much at all, but glad it's not targeted at Tesla owners.

    From April 13th, we are updating Supercharging pricing. All customers can purchase a membership to access lower prices for Supercharging or pay higher, non-membership prices.

    As a Tesla driver, you're automatically a member and you can continue to access lower member prices when Supercharging.

    No action required. 

    Stay Free



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 690 ✭✭✭kaahooters


    tbh, its a very easy fix, just change fuel station regs to mandate instalation of 4 charge units, minimum dc 50kwh speeds, and give a grant of 50% of the cost.

    if we want to be serious about it, lets be serious about it, itll cost about 200mill to the state, so what, yearly budget is 112billion likley be over 5 years too for implementation.



  • Advertisement
  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 9,867 ✭✭✭Red Silurian


    It isn't an issue today but in time to come membership could be a thing Tesla owners will have to pay for in order to avail of discounted pricing at Superchargers, just like other EV drivers. Tesla could use this as a way to drop their car prices further



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Yeah, plethora of options. Mandates are part of the solution.
    But mandates themselves on their own won't work, the biggest issue is with getting grid connection and then planning permission. Both need to be deregulated for charging operators to lower the barrier of entry to the market by new operators.
    Else you gonna end up with the big boys running the show and the usual cartel situation like with many other segments in Ireland.


    EDIT: And yes, even this solution you suggested would result in better outcomes and RoI than Gov+ESB doing it on their own and burning taxpayer's money.



  • Moderators, Motoring & Transport Moderators, Regional East Moderators Posts: 8,071 Mod ✭✭✭✭liamog


    I think grid connections and planning should be the opposite of deregulation. The UK national grid set up a task force to handle the demands of grid connections, they identified that the previous grid planning system where a building project has a multi-year timeline before the connection is required was a stumbling block, they developed substations in a box and a faster method of working for EV charging infrastructure to align with the much quicker build out process.

    ESBN have also developed a substation in a box, I would expect to see a specialist team in place that can improve the turnaround time from order to go-live for charging deployments as the requirements per site are pretty generic. As part of the AFIR funding there will be a large number of 1.2MW charging pools that are meant to be deployed by the end of December next year. ESBN should be treating this a large project and not doing each step in a piecemeal fashion.

    As to the planning issues, we currently exempt up to 4 chargers, though the addition of a substation does need planning. We saw from Blanchardstown and Carrickmines that the planning process is reasonably quick.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    By deregulation I mean "lower barriers of entry for new market players".
    Because of grid connection is so expensive and time consuming to get, new operators won't enter already anaemic market. This puts them off. The same for planning permissions.
    The government needs to legislate for exceptions or streamline PP and grid connection for network operators. They should get a priority and it should cost less for them to do so. Else no new operators will come to the market. And you'll be left with the usual oligopoly so common in Ireland.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    As part of the AFIR funding there will be a large number of 1.2MW charging pools that are meant to be deployed by the end of December next year. ESBN should be treating this a large project and not doing each step in a piecemeal fashion.

    How much is "large number"?

    Looking at the AFIR specifics:

    The text of the regulation provides for specific deployment targets that will have to be met in 2025 or 2030, in particular:
    from 2025 onwards, fast recharging stations of at least 150kW for cars and vans need to be installed every 60 km along the EU’s main transport corridors, the so-called ‘trans-European transport (TEN-T) network’

    recharging stations for heavy-duty vehicles with a minimum output of 350kW need to be deployed every 60 km along the TEN-T core network, and every 100 km on the larger TEN-T comprehensive network from 2025 onwards, with complete network coverage by 2030


    The AFIR is not very ambitious.

    If I understand correctly ONE charger in each direction for every 60 km will tick the box (albeit with power ready for 2 more chargers). This may not have the desired effect for Ireland, because the only TEN-T route in Ireland is Route 8 which is Belfast-Dublin-Cork. By the end of 2025 this might not have much, if any, effect in Irish context. We're already there IMHO looking at the 150 kW+ map on Plugshare. From 2025 to 2027 the requirement goes to 2 chargers per 60 km and a pool of 600 kW. Good as a joke, perhaps an absolute minimum but else pretty badly drawn legislation detached from reality of what's needed by 2025 or 2027 market. The EU isn't taking it very seriously. Kind of proves my point that any government "planning" is a counterproductive and suboptimal.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea%E2%80%93Mediterranean_Corridor




  • Moderators, Motoring & Transport Moderators, Regional East Moderators Posts: 8,071 Mod ✭✭✭✭liamog


    In theory you could deliver one 600kW charger per location. In practice that would be completely nuts and a waste of the grid connection.

    The regulation requires a pool (total rapid charging kW per site) and a minimum of 1 150kW charger. Meaning you can't just deploy 12 50kW chargers to meet the requirement. Pools are per direction of travel and may be combined if the location is accessible from both directions.

    The Irish tender is targeting the 2027 requirements and is focused on pools of 600kW/1.2MW instead of the lower 2025 target.



  • Moderators, Motoring & Transport Moderators, Regional East Moderators Posts: 8,071 Mod ✭✭✭✭liamog


    It's already streamlined, you don't need planning permission for installation of up to 4 free standing chargers without a new substation. Legislation isn't going to make a physical grid connection cheaper, only subsidising it will, and ESBN standardising the equipment (such as the box substation they've developed)



  • Registered Users Posts: 114 ✭✭dsandson


    Tesla made 2 applications to that fund. The second one lead by Tesla Italy included Ireland, and was successful.

    Post edited by dsandson on


  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 20,113 ✭✭✭✭cnocbui


    Norway's oil and gas revenues are €83 billion a year. That's about €15K per head of population. There is a massive difference between Norway's financial resources and Ireland's. They don't have amongst the highest debt per capita in the world to service via interest payments, like Ireland, in fact they don't have any debt, whereas we have €46K per head of debt.

    Every call for the Irish government to do something to advance EV uptake basically is advocating either increasing the national debt or decreasing the rate at which existing debt is paid down.



  • Advertisement
  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 34,132 ✭✭✭✭listermint




  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 20,113 ✭✭✭✭cnocbui


    We will fairly soon, because the government keeps allowing data centres to be built and won't build nuclear power plants to elinate CO2 from energy generation. It's only a few hundred million in fines, nothing to worry about, the 1.652 million actual taxpayers can all just be squeezed for another €180 each, no biggie.



  • Moderators, Motoring & Transport Moderators, Regional East Moderators Posts: 8,071 Mod ✭✭✭✭liamog


    Much better to spend the €21 million (the current AFIR tender) on charging infrastructure here than to spend that €21 million on carbon offsetting so that the more forward-looking EU countries can build infrastructure in their country.

    More EVs here than in Croatia improves the air quality of streets I use daily instead of the ones I might use every 5 years when I go on a holiday.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 690 ✭✭✭kaahooters


    None of this is relevant to the actual budget of the country, the money used to run the country year on year. Norway's budget is 129 billion a year, Ireland's 112 billion. We have the money to do it; there's no reason not to do it. Debt is irrelevant; surplus is irrelevant.

    your argument is the equlivant of saying we cant have a motorway built as you have mortgage.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 20,113 ✭✭✭✭cnocbui


    Ireland has the greatest wind energy potential in the EU, because there is a lot of wind in Ireland. The air quility on the streets you frequent is on average higher than almost anywhere else in the EU to a large degree because of all the wind. Currently the air quality in Dubrovnik is almost twice as bad as in Dublin - 48 vs 26.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 20,113 ✭✭✭✭cnocbui


    Debt is irrelevant… 2008 just rang and wants a word with you.

    Funny thing is, that motorway argument is exactly how I conduct my life. If I had a mortgage I would not be borrowing more to buy a €40K EV, borrowing more to chuck solar panels and batteries on my roof and then borrowing another €110K to do a house retrofit to avail of a heat pump grant.



  • Advertisement
  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 690 ✭✭✭kaahooters


    you dont seem to understand how government debt works, or, that a government project had nothing to to with your personal finances do you.



  • Moderators, Motoring & Transport Moderators, Regional East Moderators Posts: 8,071 Mod ✭✭✭✭liamog


    Would you prefer Irish taxpayers pay to remove local pollution in Croatia then instead of Ireland?

    Personally, I'm selfish and want my government to improve my air quality, sorry Croats.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 7,170 ✭✭✭timmyntc


    That all depends on where the monitoring stations are sited. Air quality always scores better higher up off the street as majority of stations are.

    At street level walking past all the traffic air quality is not good. Unless you have low standards.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 23,726 ✭✭✭✭ted1


    What % of EV drivers in those countries have access to a home charger.

    Also consider that they are part of Europe and benefit from people travelling through the country by car



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Right, now I understand why you said it was 1.2 MW pools. Because it's the 2027 requirement. That is 600 kW pool in each direction with minimum 2 chargers with 150 kW minimum output. Technically, it could be implemented by 2x 300 kW chargers with 2 connectors each per direction. Do you think operators will use up the whole pool or leave capacity for expansion and go with the minimum for now?

    How many such pools are being tendered out? My estimate would be roughly 6 top (or 12 if counting both of directions) on the TEN-T route.



  • Advertisement
  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Norway is not the topic. It's a red herring.

    Let's try Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Netherlands, UK, and now even countries like Portugal, Czechia... They could do better EV infra and so on.

    The government will generate debt either way. You're essentially saying the government is powerless in advancing strategic policies because of debt. I find it depressive and defeatist.

    I suspect the real problem is that the gov doesn't have a solid policy, doesn't have competent people taking care of the EV policy and doesn't really care to advance EVs. It's obvious. How else Ypu would explain 1M EVs goal but no serious policies to achieve it.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    Wouldn't be hugely diferent to explain a difference on the order of magnitude (10x more). Home residence is average 56% in Europe, here it's 90%. Netherlands with 3500 chargers isn't that hugely different.

    Point being, all cars can't slow charge at home at all times. You need motorway energy delivery.

    Even if we factor in all these differences it can't explain the disparity in numbers.

    If we're serious about EVs for Joe and Mary I.e. for everyone (the 1M EV goal) we need to catch up with Europe. The infrastructure sucks, it's grand for 1.5% EVs of total fleet but can't see it working for 5 or 10% or attracting the next wave of hesitant adopters.



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    But wouldn't 4 times 150 kW = 600 kW warrant a new substation?



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    The biggest emmisions sources here are animal agriculture and transport. The government isn't curbing emissions in either. Animal agri is expanding rather being reduced. Electrification in transport is let's say lukewarm.

    And Ireland is also last in % renewable energy use in the EU - because of heating, transport, and agri. Despite high % of renewable electricity generation.

    So yeah, plus data centres and fines are on the way...



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 20,113 ✭✭✭✭cnocbui


    I'm not of a belief that EV's make much of a difference to air polution in Ireland, so your question is a non sequiter, in fact I'd say they are nearly irrelevant. It is simply far too windy in Ireland for cars to matter much. If It were up to me, I'd stop encouraging people to buy diesels instead of petrol, which is still government policy despite knowing it's worse for air quality and people's health, because it's insanely fixated on CO bloody 2.

    Australia ranks as having annual PM2.5 air polution of 4.5 vs Ireland 6.5 annualized 2023. How can that be when we know Australia gets most of it's electricity from burning coal, are car mad having enormous engine sizes and weights compared to Ireland and emit twice as much CO2 per head as here - 15t vs 7.7t? How can Perth currently have less than half the air pollution of Dublin - 9 vs 26 - while having almost no EVs?

    My bet is it's because they were never stupid enough to vote in someone like Gormley, so everyone drives petrol ICE, not diesels. Ireland has the equal highest concentration of diesels vs petrol in Europe at 77%. There's your air polution problem, except it's not really, because there is generally too much wind for it to accumulate.

    I would say the government should not be spending beyond it's means and should be reducing debt, not pretending the country is as wealthy as Norway and acting accordingly. The country has a problem with a public sector that to me seems stuffed to the gills with socially idealistic semi competents who give bad advice to whatever 'same as the other lot' politicians happen to be in power. The national childrens hospital fiasco would be a good example. A lot of the blame for that lies with civil service incompetence. Boardsies who have worked on the project say the plans and designs were incomplete. That's likely why when an enquiry into the shambles was announced, the frames of reference specifically stated that no blame would would be apportioned to individuals. The financial crisis in 2008 - the civil service regulators let that happen and did not do their job: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/jbr.2011.30

    Need I even mention the HSE, which has seen Ireland have one of the highest expenditures per head in the OECD with the poorest outcomes. The housing crisis is another: Local councils coud build houses for half their open market cost, so twice as much social housing could be provisioned per € spent. This isn't done because the civil service is incompetent to mange such an obviously beneficial effort, so instead Councils buy completed new-builds at prices first time buyers can't match, wasting considerable sums of taxpayers money by paying twice as much as should be necessary.

    Energy policy and the envisioned joke of a plan (sic) to reach zero CO2 by 2050 - AKA never.

    Take Gormley's forcing of diesel. Green apologists will pop up at every mention of this claiming the car companies lied, which is a joke. Even with the claimed nox figures they should never have been favoured as those levels were still too high for peoples health given the available evidence. But the real kicker, and one that shows how incompetent the civil service is, was that no one seems to have ever told Gormley that diesel exhaust also contains the most potent carcinogen ever discovered - 3-nitrobenzanthrone. The UN declared diesel exhaust carcinogenic in 2012, but we still favour them over petrol 12 years later.

    As for explaining the uptake of EV's below target - that's easy: the target was too high - more idealism. EVs are status toys for the well off, like solar panel hobyism. Most people can't afford them, not just here, but in the EU in general, except Norway, which leverages it's massive sovereign wealth fund to make them financially attractive. EV uptake is failing everywhere at the moment, and analysts consistently point the finger at the high cost, not the EV proselytisers favourite - ignorance.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 3,000 ✭✭✭BailMeOut


    Always wonder why they do not discount when rates are low overnight. Most fast chargers are rarely used in middle of the night and would imagine plenty of people would use them at these times to save money.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 690 ✭✭✭kaahooters


    look, youve proven you cant keep on topic, youve detrailed the conversation with, seemingly intresting poitns, but are completely irrelivant to the topic of the thread. youneed to stop trying to have a conversation you want, and joint the one being had.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 13,375 ✭✭✭✭prawnsambo


    I dunno if I'd get up at three in the morning to dash to the nearest 150kW+ charger to avail of a half price deal (or whatever) that might just save me twenty quid.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 3,000 ✭✭✭BailMeOut




  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 13,375 ✭✭✭✭prawnsambo


    I'm going to have to ask for poll results for that one. 🤣



  • Advertisement
  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 23,726 ✭✭✭✭ted1


    As a percentage it’s twice as many living in flats, but many houses in cities don’t have off street parking.

    But the population is 3 time that of ours



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 7,170 ✭✭✭timmyntc


    I believe charging operators buy their units in bulk ahead of time and at a fixed price, it does not vary by time of use.

    John Byrne, head of e-cars at ESB, told The Irish Times that: “We purchase our electricity in blocks, so as the wholesale price has come down, and as we roll over our contracts and buy our next blocks of energy, then we hope to avail of those lower wholesale costs and pass those savings on to consumers.

    https://www.irishtimes.com/motors/2023/08/16/ev-charging-prices-to-fall-in-near-future-says-esb/



  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver




  • Registered Users Posts: 4,450 ✭✭✭McGiver


    The wholesale pricing isn't dynamic?

    Microgeneration in the UK and in some European countries is on dynamic pricing market (pricing changing every hour or even 30 minutes based on current load & production).

    Shouldn't it be dynamic given the % renewables and dynamic nature of the grid (which will only increase in future)?

    If it's static for wholesale it can hardly be dynamic for the end consumer. Or it can be but the operator has much smaller room to maneuver with the prices at different times of the day.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 23,726 ✭✭✭✭ted1


    the wholesale price is indeed dynamic. But companies don’t buy off the wholesale.

    And you’ll find that those who think are buying dynamic following the market have price caps and are not truly following them market. There can be some Really high spikes in the wholesale price



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 34,132 ✭✭✭✭listermint


    They might do but dynamic pricing would surely keep chargers more active at all times of the day. Increasing usage surely is key.



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 893 ✭✭✭65535


    "Public charging prices not dropping when wholesale prices drop" - Just how much on a league table are public charging rates today ?



  • Registered Users Posts: 2,152 ✭✭✭innrain


    I think the OP was thing of the ESB charging rate when wrote that. ESB rates 59* - 69 c/kWh. *5quid/month subscription

    Others may have it higher Like Ionity 70c/kWh down to 50c/kWh for 6 quid/month.

    Easy Go pricing varies. Most of them would be 70c/kWh +27c at the start but Lidl sites can be 58c/kWh+27c start

    Applegreen and Circle K are 68c/kWh. Maxol 75c/kWh (not 100% sure)

    Weev and ePower varies a lot from 40c to 75c /kWh.

    Tesla pricing is dynamic currently 42/47c/kWh (off-peak/peak hours) for Tesla cars, 55/60 c/kWh for non-Tesla cars with possibility to reduce to the same level as for Tesla cars for a 10quid/month

    These are all DC charging prices. Have I missed something?



  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 19,058 ✭✭✭✭Del2005


    No I was asking why the price of charging at any of the providers hasn't dropped when the wholesale price has dropped nearly 40% since this time last year. If petrol stations don't drop their prices when the price of crude drops it's national news, and the crude price is a tiny part of dino juices pump price, yet no one is seems to care that the price of public charging isn't dropping when the price to the supply has dropped substantially.



  • Advertisement
  • Registered Users, Registered Users 2 Posts: 9,867 ✭✭✭Red Silurian


    Brite, only one station in galway as low as 41c (night time weekdays) and as high as 63c (peak weekend rate) 55c most of the week, 59c most of the weekend. Cheaper than ecars 68c at every time of the day



Advertisement